By Ana-Paula Correia (in collaboration with Zack Batsaikhan)

Adobe Firefly generated image. Curated by Zack Batsaikhan.

In our hyper-connected world, smartphones have become more than just tools; they are extensions of ourselves, our constant companions. But what happens when this attachment crosses a line? When does the thought of being without our devices trigger genuine distress? This is the reality of nomophobia, or “no mobile phone phobia,” a modern-day phenomenon that is increasingly impacting young adults, particularly college students. The term is used to describe the fear and anxiety resulting from being detached from smartphone connectivity.

The origins of nomophobia, whether it is simply a fear or a more complex addiction, are explored, and methods for measuring it are examined. Ways to alleviate and prevent this growing concern, especially among younger populations, are outlined in detail with the introduction of mobile (a combination of “no” and “mobile”), an app concept designed to foster positive social behavior change (Batsaikhan, 2014). Originally conceptualized over a decade ago as a gamified mobile app where users challenge each other to put down smartphones in social settings, nobile’s unrealized potential remains highly relevant for addressing the pressing issue of smartphone dependence.

The Origins of a Modern Fear

The term “nomophobia” is a portmanteau of “no mobile phone phobia.” It emerged as a direct result of our increasing reliance on mobile technology. As smartphones evolved into sophisticated tools for communication, information access, and social networking, they also inadvertently created a new kind of anxiety. This constant availability has led to increased dependency on these devices, worsening feelings of anxiety when contact is lost. The idea of being without a phone, unable to stay connected, or losing access to information became a genuine source of discomfort and fear for many.

The initial conceptualization of nomophobia linked it to broader anxieties about being out of contact or losing connection to the virtual world. Researchers like King, Valença, and Nardi (2010, p.52) first defined nomophobia as “discomfort or anxiety when out of mobile phone or computer contact,” encompassing a fear of becoming technologically incommunicable.

Nomophobia is a way to describe the anxiety and distress people experience when they are without their smartphones. While the concept is relatively recent, the underlying dependence on technology is not new. However, the proliferation of smartphones has intensified this reliance, making nomophobia a relevant and growing concern, especially for younger generations (Guerra Ayala et al., 2025).

Measuring the Fear: The Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q)

The Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q) developed by Yildirim and Correia (2015) is used to better understand and assess nomophobia. This self-reported measure was designed to determine an individual’s level of nomophobia. The NMP-Q is comprised of 20 items that assess the different dimensions of nomophobia through a 7-point Likert scale. The questionnaire is structured around four key factors that capture the essence of nomophobia:

Not being able to communicate: This factor reflects the anxiety associated with the inability to contact others or be contacted.
Losing connectedness: This refers to the fear of losing touch with social networks and the constant updates from connections.
Not being able to access information: This aspect captures the distress experienced when individuals cannot access information or online services.
Giving up convenience: This factor is associated with the anxiety of losing the convenience and ease of use that smartphones provide.

The NMP-Q uses a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree,” to assess how much participants identify with statements related to these four dimensions. The higher the score, the greater the level of nomophobia.

Take the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q) to assess your levels of nomophobia (from absent to severe).

Take the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q)

Nomophobia Among Young Adults: Escalating Smartphone Dependency

Nomophobia is particularly prevalent among young adults, especially college students. This demographic, having grown up with smartphones as an integral part of their daily lives, is more prone to feelings of anxiety when separated from their devices. They are particularly vulnerable due to their high adoption of smartphones, integration of phones into daily life, and external pressures to remain connected.

Many college students today spend more than nine hours a day on their smartphones, fueling addictive behaviors. This situation illustrates the paradox of technology, in which digital tools can simultaneously free users from real-world constraints and bind them to a virtual environment (Bhattacharya et al., 2019).

Fear or Addiction: The Shifting Sands of Nomophobia

While initially termed a “phobia,” the understanding of nomophobia is evolving. Is it truly just a fear, or does it have characteristics of an addiction?

Nomophobia is often described as a “fear” or “phobia,” and its relationship with addiction is complex. Initially, studies labeled nomophobia as a “situational phobia” (e.g., Yildirim & Correia, 2015; Lee et al., 2018) characterized by an irrational fear of not being able to use a smartphone. Like other phobias, nomophobia involves intense anxiety and avoidance behaviors, such as always keeping a phone nearby, constantly checking for notifications, or experiencing distress when a phone's battery dies.

However, other researchers argue that nomophobia is not only a fear but rather an anxiety, addiction, or behavioral disorder (Lee et al., 2018) since nomophobia shares features with behavioral addictions, such as a preoccupation with smartphone use, withdrawal symptoms when the phone is not available, and a compulsion to check the phone constantly (Gonçalves, Dias & Correia, 2020). In addition, the fear of missing out or being disconnected can trigger obsessive behaviors. Individuals with higher levels of obsessiveness tend to experience more anxiety when they do not have their smartphones at hand.

In today’s world, it is clear that nomophobia is not just a simple fear and could also be seen as a behavioral addiction. This has significant implications for how it is addressed, with approaches needing to consider both the anxiety and dependency aspects of nomophobia.

Alleviating Nomophobia: Strategies for a Healthier Relationship with Technology

Many alleviation strategies for nomophobia have been discussed. Mindfulness and digital detox, limiting smartphone use, and establishing phone-free zones are among the most popular.

In direct response to “phubbing”—ignoring others in favor of smartphone use—encouraging face-to-face interactions among younger populations stands at the helm of efforts to alleviate nomophobia. This approach promotes activities that encourage in-person engagement, helping individuals rebuild human connections instead of relying solely on virtual ones. Additionally, these virtual connections often revolve around content that depicts idealized lifestyles or grandiose dreams, reinforcing unrealistic standards and distorting perceptions of reality.

That was the vision for nobile.

The New Frontier: Reviving Human Connection

It is not surprising that some individuals spend ten hours on their smartphones daily. This ever-present connectivity is quietly changing the way people communicate and experience life. People gather in social settings but barely interact, being glued to their screens instead. People rely on smartphones for companionship rather than engaging in genuine conversations, which can negatively impact their social lives and the value of interpersonal relationships. Reviving and balancing genuine human connections may be one of the biggest challenges in this technology-driven era.

Nobile is a persuasive technology app concept designed to encourage human interactions and reduce excessive smartphone use. The application achieves this by challenging users to refrain from using their smartphones during social gatherings in exchange for discounts and rewards.

The application concept is based on the Fogg Behavior Model (Fogg, 2009), which states that for a behavior to occur, a person needs sufficient motivation, ability, and a trigger. In the context of nobile, the application itself acts as a trigger, and the desired behavior is increased human interaction. Nobileincorporates several motivational factors:

Social influence: The application encourages users to play collaboratively and competitively, which increases motivation through social influence.
Discounts and prizes: Participating in a “No-mobile” challenge at venues that offer discounts or prizes gives users a tangible reward.
Conversation starters: The “Suggest a Starter” feature provides random, engaging questions to help people start conversations when they are not using their phones.

The design and development of nobile incorporate principles from Social Impact Theory, which suggests that people influence one another when in close proximity (Latané, 1981). Additionally, it draws from the Quantified Self movement by tracking a user’s smartphone non-usage time (Jordan & Pfarr, 2014)

Nobile works by having users check in at a location, invite friends to participate in a challenge, and then set their smartphones aside to compete. The app monitors smartphone usage using motion sensors and displays the time the user is not using their phone. If a user picks up their phone, the application vibrates as a warning, and the user loses points for using their smartphone. The challenge continues until a winner emerges.

Adobe Firefly generated and custom edited image. Curated by Zack Batsaikhan.

It is worth noting that nobile was conceptualized in 2014, pioneering a vision of digital well-being four years before Apple introduced “Screen Time” on iPhones. Yet, it remains more relevant than ever.

It is obvious that digital technology is here to stay and will undoubtedly become even more ubiquitous in the years ahead. As long as people keep using smartphones, the risks of overuse will persist, driven by technology companies' desire to keep users engaged. Despite the substantial increase in smartphone usage and screen time, merely striving to reduce excessive use might not be the most effective strategy. What may be considered excessive varies significantly across different demographics, professions, and contexts.

Many apps offer features like setting usage limits and blocking access to certain applications, but these measures are often voluntary and easily bypassed by users who consider their smartphones essential. As a result, these tools may have limited success in significantly reducing screen time. Smartphone use should prioritize intentional engagement rather than passive scrolling. However, many individuals struggle with the motivation to cut back on usage, even when they recognize its negative effects. Instead of actively reducing screen time, users often settle for simply monitoring their habits.

Efforts to reduce excessive smartphone usage should extend beyond specific app limitations to consider users’ behavior and needs (Rixen et al., 2023), something thatnobileaims to do. Smartphones are integral to modern life, and users' willingness to reduce smartphone usage is a complex issue. Managing smartphone usage demands more nuanced and innovative solutions. Rather than trying to restrict smartphone use, focusing on making it intentional, productive, and balanced may be a more effective strategy moving forward.

References

Batsaikhan, B. (Zack) (2014). nobile: Design and evaluation of a persuasive technology application for social behavior change. https://doi.org/10.31274/etd-180810-3852

Bhattacharya, S., Bashar, M. A., Srivastava, A., & Singh, A. (2019). NOMOPHOBIA: NO MObile PHone PhoBIA. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 8(4), 1297–1300. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_71_19

Fogg, B. J. (2009). A behavior model for persuasive design. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology (pp. 1-7). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/1541948.1541999

Gonçalves, S., Dias, P. & Correia, A.-P. (2020). Nomophobia and lifestyle: Smartphone use and its relationship to psychopathologies. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 2(August-December 2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2020.100025

Guerra Ayala, M. J., Alegre de la Rosa, O. M., Chambi Catacora, M. A. P, Vargas, O. E., Cari Checa, E., & Díaz Flores, D. (2025). Nomophobia, phubbing, and deficient sleep patterns in college students. Frontiers in Education, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1421162

W, M., & Pfarr, N. (2014, April 4). Forget the quantified self. We need to build the quantified us. Wired.

King, A. L. S., Valença, A. M., & Nardi, A. E. (2010). Nomophobia: The mobile phone in panic disorder with agoraphobia: Reducing phobias or worsening of dependence? Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 23(1), 52–54. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNN.0b013e3181b7eabc

Latané, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American psychologist, 36(4), 343-356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.36.4.343

Lee, S., Kim, M., Jessica S. Mendoza, Ian M. McDonough (2018). Addicted to cellphones: exploring the psychometric properties between the nomophobia questionnaire and obsessiveness in college students. Heliyon, 4(11), e00895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00895

Rixen, J. O., Meinhardt, L., Glöckler, M., Ziegenbein, M., Schlothauer, A., Colley, M., Rukzio, E., & Gugenheimer, J. (2023). The loop and reasons to break it: Investigating infinite scrolling behaviour in social media applications and reasons to stop. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 7(MHCI), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1145/3604275

Yildirim, C. & Correia, A.-P (2015). Exploring the Dimensions of Nomophobia: Development and Validation of a Self-Reported Questionnaire. Computers in Human Behavior, 49 (August 2015), 130-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.059

Please cite the content of this blog:

Correia, A.-P. & Batsaikhan, B. (Zack) (2025, February 26). The Ever-Present Companion: Understanding Nomophobia and Smartphone Dependence. Ana-Paula Correia’s Blog. https://www.ana-paulacorreia.com/blog/the-ever-present-companion-understanding-nomophobia-and-smartphone-dependence

The Ever-Present Companion: Understanding Nomophobia and Smartphone Dependence